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The Second World War naturally provided much of the impetus, and even today it is in the military-industrial sector that much of the anthropometric research is generated.
Although the discipline has fallen within the purview of the anthropometrist, anatomist, or ergonomist, it is time for the architect and interior designer to become more aware of the data available and its applicability to the design of interior spaces.
If anthropometry is viewed mainly as exercises in simple measurement and nothing more, one might conclude that the dimensional data could be gathered simply and effortlessly. Nothing, however, could be further from the truth.
One such factor is that body sizes vary with age, sex, race, and even occupational group. Chart Statistics on the statures in centimeters and certain other characteristics of 26 samples. Perhaps an even more dramatic example of ethnic variability, however, is a comparison of the difference in stature of the smallest males on record with the largest, as shown in Figure Roberts notes that the former, the Pigmies of Central Africa, have a mean stature of Comparison of difference in stature of the tallest Northern Nilote of Southern Sudan with the stature of the smallest Pigmy of Central Africa.
Full growth, with respect to body dimensions, peaks in the late teens and early twenties for males and usually a few years earlier for females. Subsequent to maturity, body dimension for both sexes actually decreases with age, as illustrated in Figure In terms of the anthropometry of elderly people, a study in England suggested that body size of elderly women was smaller than the body size of young women.
It was also pointed out, however, that to some extent the difference could be attributable not only to the fact that the elderly sample was obviously drawn from an earlier generation but to the aging process itself.
Another conclusion of the study was the reduction in upward reach among elderly people. Figure Relative change in height with age over the mean for men and women aged years. Data from National Health Survey. The nutrition available to those with higher incomes creates, for example, freedom from childhood disease and contributes to body growth, as illustrated in Figure Accordingly, studies made of college students almost always indicate higher statures than noncollege individuals.
To all this must be added such other considerations as the actual physical conditions under which data are recorded. Was the subject clothed or nude? If clothed, was the clothing light or heavy? Was the subject barefooted? Bar graphs showing mean height and weight for U.
There is no doubt that anthropometric studies are no less sophisticated or tedious than other investigations in the biological sciences. When one considers that the anthropometrist must also be knowledgeable in the area of statistical methodology, the complexity and tediousness of the discipline is underscored even more.
It is also obvious that those individuals taking and recording body measurements must be properly trained. To the interior designer, architect, and industrial designer, however, it should be evident that the same factors that contribute to the complexity and tediousness of the discipline of anthropometry also necessitate a very cautious approach in the application of the data generated.
It is essential, therefore, that the designer have some understanding of anthropometrics, its basic vocabulary, the nature of the data available, the forms in which it is usually presented, and the restraints involved in their application.
The reasons are obvious. First, it is within these sectors that a compelling need for anthropometric data exists in order to properly equip and clothe the respective armies, navies, and air forces. Third, the funds to implement the studies are committed and made available by the governments involved. The basic disadvantage in mass military surveys of this kind is usually the restrictions of sex and age.
In addition, the measurements have often been limited to height and weight and in many instances have been gathered by unskilled observers. In , however, a survey was made of some , American troops upon discharge from the service. It did, however, during the period between the First and Second World Wars, serve as a standard description of U.
Most of the early and more successful applications of anthropometry to design actually took place during the Second World War and were predicated on studies prepared by the United States Air Force, the Royal Air Force, and the British Navy. Apparently, this period was a turning point because since that time, the United States, in addition to many other countries, has conducted extensive military anthropometric studies. Howard W. Stoudt, Dr. Albert Damon, and Dr. Public Health Service.
Most anthropometric research, nevertheless, is still being done for the military. All branches of the service have active programs, and in many instances will share their data with professionals in the private sector. This book is probably the most comprehensive source of summarized body size data currently in existence anywhere in the world. The former are simpler and more readily obtained, while the latter are normally far more complicated.
Figures through illustrate the basic anthropometric instruments usually employed in the measurement of body parts and their use. There are more sophisticated measuring devices and techniques, such as multiple probe contour devices, photometric camera systems, andrometric camera systems, stereophotogrammetry, but their use is not presently widespread. One recent publication contains almost one thousand measurements. Such data might be extremely useful to a designer of a helmet for a pressurized spacesuit, but would be of little value to an interior designer.
Interior design students at the Fashion Institute of Technology illustrating the use of the anthropometer. Interior design students at the Fashion Institute of Technology illustrating the use of the sliding compass for measuring hand breadth.
Body measurements of most use to the designer of interior spaces. Damon et al. The necessary data for these measurements are developed in the various tables in Part B of this book.
When data are initially recorded, however, their form, of necessity, is statistically disorganized. Figure 1- 10 is an example of a form used to record initial data.
Subsequently, the data are then reorganized in a more orderly and logical manner. With regard to anthropometric data, it is usually restructured to indicate frequency, as illustrated in Figure Since individual body sizes and measurements vary greatly within any population, it is not practical to design for the entire group.
Consequently, statistical distribution of body sizes is of great interest to the designer in establishing design standards and making design decisions.
Anthropometric data of a standing adult female. The restructured array of data in the form of a frequency table, as shown on Figure , begins to suggest the pattern of distribution. The array of data lists, in order of magnitude from smallest to largest, certain height intervals in inches for army aviators and the corresponding number of instances in which such measurements were observed.
Certain information can be immediately noted. The smallest height interval is from It can also be observed that the number of cases in which these particular extreme high and low measurements occurred were minimal. An example of a recording form used in an anthropometric study.
From National Health Survey. Interval Midpoint Frequency Example of a frequency table of the standing height in inches of Army aviators. The heights of the bars vary in order to indicate the frequency or number of cases for each interval, while the width of the bars are equal. Example of a frequency histogram and polygon. Despite the variation, the general pattern of distribution of anthropometric data, as with many other types of data, is fairly predictable and approximates the so-called Gaussian distribution.
Such distribution, when presented graphically, in terms of frequency of occurrence versus magnitude, usually resembles a bell-shaped symmetrical curve. Example of areas under a normal curve.
A small number of measurements appear at either end of the scale, but most are grouped within the middle portion. Statistically, it has been shown that human body measurements in any given population will be distributed so that they will fall somewhere in the middle, while a small number of extreme measurements may fall at either end of the spectrum.
Since it is impractical to design for the entire population, it is necessary to select a segment from the middle portion. Accordingly, it is fairly common today to omit the extremes at both ends and to deal with 90 percent of the population group. Most anthropometric data, therefore, are quite often expressed in terms of percentiles.
Similarly, a 95th percentile height would indicate that only 5 percent of the study population would have heights greater and that 95 percent of the study population would have the same or lesser heights. When dealing with percentiles, two important factors should be kept in mind.
Firstly, anthropometric percentiles on actual individuals refer to only one body dimension. This may be stature or sitting height, for example.
Secondly, there is no such thing as a 95th percentile or 90th percentile or 5 percentile person. An individual having a 50th percentile stature dimension might have a 40th percentile knee height or a 60th percentile hand length, as suggested in Figure The graph in Figure , representing actual data of three individuals, reinforces the mythical aspect of percentile people with respect to all body dimensions.
Examination of the graph and its very pronounced angular and uneven path clearly indicates that each of the three individuals has a differing percentile ranking for each of the body dimensions shown. Humans are not, in reality, normally distributed in all body dimensions. As the illustration indicates, a person with a 50th percentile stature may well have a 55th percentile side arm reach. A graph indicating the percentiles for the various body dimensions of three actual individuals.
Each graph line represents one person. Note that the individual represented by the solid line, for example, shows a 70th percentile buttock-knee length, a 15th percentile knee- height sitting, and a 60th percentile shoulder height. If all the body dimensions were equivalent to the same percentile, that fact would be shown in a straight horizontal line across the graph. Individuals from one part of the country may be taller and heavier than those from another part.
A comparison in stature between truck drivers and research workers, for example, indicated that the latter, as a group, were taller than the former. The military, as a group, differs anthropometrically from the civilian population.
Moreover, measurements of general body sizes within a country may change over a period of time. Papers delivered at that symposium revealed some very substantial anthropometric differences among the various populations of the world.
The graph compares the mean stature for young U. If the user is an individual, or constitutes a very small group, it may, in certain situations, be feasible to develop your own primary anthropometric data by actually having individual body measurements taken. The measurements, in the event individual data are generated, should, however, be taken with proper instruments by a trained observer. There are men who are average in weight, or in stature, or in sitting height, but the men who are average in two dimensions constitute only about 7 percent of the population; those in three, only about 3 percent; those in four, less than 2 percent.
There are no men average in as few as 10 dimensions. If the design requires the user to reach from a seated or standing position, the 5th percentile data should be utilized.
Such data for arm reach indicates that 5 percent of the population would have an arm reach of short or shorter dimension, while 95 percent of the population, the overwhelming majority, would have longer arm reaches. If the design in a reach situation can accommodate the user with the shortest arm reach, obviously it will function for the users with longer reaches as well; it is equally obvious that the opposite is not true, as shown in Figure 2. In designs where clearance is the primary consideration, the larger or 95th percentile data should be used.
The logic is simple. Here, too, it can be seen from Figure b that the opposite is not true. In other situations it may be desirable to provide the design with a built-in adjustment capability. Certain chair types, adjustable shelves, etc. The range of adjustment should be based on the anthropometrics of the user, the nature of the task, and the physical or mechanical limitations involved.
The range should allow the design to accommodate at least 90 percent of the user population involved, or more. It should be noted that all the foregoing examples were used primarily to illustrate the basic logic underlying the selection of the body dimensions involved and the particular percentiles to be accommodated.
Wherever possible, however, it is naturally more desirable to accommodate the greatest percentage of the user population. In this regard, there is no substitute for common sense. Distance and, by extension, clearance and space generally have many other more sophisticated and subtle connotations. Graphic illustration of the distance zones suggested by Hall, The Hidden Dimension, Some years ago, Horowitz et al. Individuals, they held, tend to keep a characteristic distance between themselves and other people and inanimate objects.
This contention was demonstrated in an experiment they conducted at a U. The subjects were taken from two groups. One consisted of 19 patients with an established diagnosis of schizophrenia.
The other group were non-schizophrenic people of similar backgrounds. Horowitz et al. John J. Figure shows the seating arrangement. Human life represents no static state; from the blink of an eye to top speed running, in sleep or wakefulness, man is in motion. People, as Kaplan suggests, are constantly in motion. Even when not engaged in a particular activity or task, the human body is never really completely still or at rest, and even when considered to be rigid, the body will, in fact, sway to some extent in all directions.
The body is always pliable and can stretch. Limbs can rotate and twist, and electrical energy from body muscles can be harnessed to operate machines. One dramatic example of the relative pliability and elasticity of the human body is the change it undergoes during weightlessness.
This increase typically amounts to about 5 cm, or 2 in. This increase is caused primarily by a lengthening of the spinal column due to the contraction and expansion of the intervertebral discs. Upon reexposure to one gravity, the process is reversed and the body returns to normal. Below this boundary the frequency of body contact between pedestrians is increased. Figures to adapted from Fruin, Pedestrian Planning and Design, A full body depth separates standees, allowing for limited lateral circulation by moving sideways.
Fruin contends that 10 to 13 sq ft, or 0. Adapted from Sociometry. Changes in height, however, are not limited to zero gravity conditions. Such changes are also observed on earth after a person has been in a reclining horizontal posture for a period of time, such as when sleeping, and then assumes a standing position.
The human body is, by its nature, a dynamic organism. By contrast, however, much of the anthropometric data available are based on static measurements taken of samples of larger populations in various positions i. Photograph courtesy National Aeronautics and Space Administration. In the application of hard-lined anthropometric data, therefore, the designer must somehow reconcile the static nature of the data with the reality of the dynamic aspects of body movements.
At the very least, he must be aware of the inherent limitations of the data. By way of example, Figure illustrates the classic anthropometric diagram associated with arm reach measurement. Classic anthropometric diagram representing arm reach.
Anthropometric space requirements for walking clearances constitute yet another excellent example of the importance of body movement and its implications in the design process. Human stride and gait affect the clearances to be allowed between people and physical obstructions. However, very little published research in this particular area is available. Sitting, all too often, is viewed as a task that is essentially static in nature.
Nothing could be further from the truth. The act of sitting, in actuality, involves almost continuous repositioning in order to respond to the demands of the various activities to be performed in that position. Moreover, one cannot deal exclusively with the body in the seated position. The movements involved in getting into and out of the seat must be considered.
Also, the entire sitting process must be perceived within a continuum of motion. Any attempt to simulate graphically and in two dimensions the dynamic patterns of body movements, which by their very nature involve time, space, and three dimensions, is bound to lose something in the translation. Movement of the head, for example, as illustrated in Figure , will greatly increase the area of visibility. It is helpful, therefore, if not essential, that the designer have some knowledge of the range of joint motion.
Range of head movements in the vertical plane increases area of visibility. From Human Factors Engineering, The ability to lean forward, even slightly, increases functional reach.
The total range is measured by the angle formed between the two most extreme positions possible, given the normal constraints of bone and muscle structure. Joint motion can be more clearly understood when considered in terms of the body linkage system shown in Figure The links are theoretically viewed as straight line distances between centers of joint rotation.
Movable joints are divided into three general types. Termed hinge joints, the elbow and the knee are typical examples. The second involves motion in two planes originating from a zero starting position. The third type of joint, the so-called ball and socket, allows three dimensional, or rotary, motion as in the shoulder or hip. Several factors can affect the range of joint motion. A study in this regard indicates that women, in general, exceed men in range of joint motion measurements at all joints except the knee.
Age, by itself, surprisingly, does not dramatically decrease or otherwise inhibit joint motion. It should be noted, however, that arthritis, which usually increases in incidence after middle age, will result in a general decrease in average joint mobility of any population. Body linkage system. Adapted from linkage system diagram, Anthropometric Source Book, vol.
It is stressed that anthropometry, at least at its present stage of development, is not so exact a science as one might wish. The data should be viewed, however, as one of many sources of information or tools available to the designer of interior space. The danger is for the designer to substitute tabular data for common sense, function, or design sensitivity, which are all essential parts of the creative design process.
While the authors of this book have provided as much anthropometric information as could be accumulated considering the state of the art, more information is constantly being produced, and undoubtedly, some may not be included here. In fact, there is a vast amount of data yet unavailable, particularly with respect to children and physically disabled and elderly people.
In addition, more information about functional dimensions is needed. Obviously, physical body size is only one of a vast number of human factors that impact on establishing the dimensions of interior spaces. The National Health Survey of the U. When one considers that there are now close to 20 million Americans over the age of 65, with the number increasing yearly, it becomes apparent that the need for anthropometric data for this segment of the population is critical.
Moreover, the data are essential if we are to respond sensitively in designing the interior spaces in which elderly people are to function. Some data are available and some conclusions have been drawn. Older people of both sexes tend to be shorter than younger people.
To a certain degree, however, the difference may be accounted for because the older individuals are obviously representative of an earlier generation, while recent studies indicate that body sizes generally are increasing. It has also been suggested that the decreases might be due to the selective survival of short, light people—an extremely interesting speculation.
Reach measurements of older people are shorter than those of younger people. There is also considerable variability in the degree to which the reach of elderly people is impaired due to the incidence of arthritis and other joint movement limitations. This is particularly true of vertical grip reach. The basic problem with most of the available anthropometric data is the small size of the group studied. Roberts2 were based on subjects and 78 subjects, respectively.
Perhaps the best available data, which are in a percentile form required by the designer, are given in the National Health Survey, which includes data up to age These data are included in Part B. Functional anthropometry of elderly men. Functional anthropometry of elderly women. Figures illustrating body measurements indicated in Chart 3. The U. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare estimated in that some 69 million people in the United States alone are physically limited.
It underscores the magnitude of the problem on a national basis. Distribution of disabilities by category. From Selim, Barrier Free Design, To solve all the problems of all the physically disabled people with respect to their interface with physical barriers is obviously an interdisciplinary undertaking that transcends the scope of this book. However, the anthropometrics involved can be introduced here; they will be explored further in Part C.
All would have to be considered. For study purposes, therefore, the assumption has been made that where limb mobility has not been impaired, the range of movement would approximate that of able-bodied people.
It is, however, important that in determining appropriate reach, clearance, and other dimensions, the individual and the wheelchair be viewed together. This requires some knowledge of the anatomy of the wheelchair itself. Figure provides some basic and useful data on this. With regard to the anthropometrics involved, there are many diagrams in circulation illustrating body measurements of men and women in wheelchairs.
Caution should be exercised in interpreting, and subsequently applying, the data indicated. This notion of average was discussed in Section 2. If reach is a critical factor in the particular design, it is essential to base the design on those body dimensions representative of the lower range of the population, not the average.
Consequently, the 5th percentile arm reach data should be used. If the design were based on the so-called average reach, half of the chairbound users simply could not function.
Figure , Chart , and Figure illustrate the anthropometrics of chairbound people. What should be noted, however, is that most wheelchairs are not built to keep the body in an erect position. Accordingly, body parts are not strictly vertical or horizontal.
In describing the geometrics involved, Dr. Herman L. Albert Damon, and Dr. Public Health Service, Panero and Zelnik have devised a system of interior design reference standards, easily understood through a series of charts and situation drawings.
With "Human Dimension and Interior Space," these standards are now accessible to all designers of interior environments. Copyright Disclaimer: This site does not store any files on its server. We only index and link to content provided by other sites.
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